Known primarily as a historian, soldier, and philosopher, Xenophon of Athens lived during a dynamic period of ancient Greek history marked by wars, shifting alliances, and philosophical developments. One particularly intriguing aspect of his life is his close association with Sparta, a city-state known for its militaristic culture and austere lifestyle. Though he was born in Athens, Xenophon spent a significant portion of his life in Sparta or under Spartan influence. His connections to the Spartan way of life were not just superficial but ran deep, influencing both his personal choices and his literary works.
Early Life and Athenian Background
Birth and Upbringing
Xenophon was born around 430 BCE in the city of Athens, which was at the time one of the most powerful and intellectually vibrant city-states in Greece. As a young man, he studied under Socrates, the great philosopher who also influenced Plato. This education laid the groundwork for Xenophon’s philosophical inclinations and his interest in ethical and practical questions about leadership, governance, and warfare.
Departure from Athens
Despite his Athenian roots, Xenophon’s political and military alignments eventually placed him at odds with his home city. His decision to fight alongside Sparta in various military campaigns caused tension with the Athenian government, ultimately leading to his exile. This exile pushed him further into Spartan territory and allowed him to observe their culture from the inside.
Military Campaigns and Spartan Connections
Anabasis and the March of the Ten Thousand
One of Xenophon’s most famous works,Anabasis, details his involvement with the Ten Thousand, a group of Greek mercenaries hired by Cyrus the Younger to seize the Persian throne. After Cyrus’s death in battle, Xenophon played a key leadership role in guiding the army back to Greece. This experience revealed his leadership abilities and brought him closer to Spartan generals and commanders who admired his resilience and tactical thinking.
Service Under Agesilaus II
Following the events of theAnabasis, Xenophon began a close relationship with the Spartan king Agesilaus II. He even accompanied Agesilaus on military expeditions, including campaigns in Asia Minor. Xenophon admired Agesilaus greatly and later wrote a biography titledAgesilaus, which portrayed him as a model ruler and military leader.
Exile from Athens
Due to his collaboration with Sparta, which had been a long-standing enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War, Xenophon was exiled from his homeland. This formal break with Athens made his integration into Spartan life more complete, further solidifying his reputation as an Athenian who had gone over to the Spartan side.
Residence in Sparta and Scillus
Settlement at Scillus
Although Xenophon did not live directly in the city of Sparta, he was granted an estate in Scillus, a town in the region of Elis, near Olympia. This land was under Spartan control at the time, and his residence there was a gift from the Spartan government in recognition of his service. For over two decades, Xenophon lived peacefully in Scillus, writing, farming, and engaging in philosophical reflection.
Lifestyle and Influence
During his years at Scillus, Xenophon lived a life heavily influenced by Spartan customs. He raised horses, practiced hunting, and maintained a simple and disciplined household. His admiration for Spartan values such as courage, austerity, and loyalty was evident in his lifestyle. The long period he spent there allowed him to compose many of his philosophical and historical works, which frequently praised Spartan practices.
Writings Reflecting Spartan Ideals
The Constitution of the Lacedaemonians
One of Xenophon’s notable works isThe Constitution of the Lacedaemonians, in which he analyzes the political and social structure of Sparta. Far from being critical, this text is mostly laudatory, describing the unique laws and customs that made Sparta distinct among the Greek city-states. Xenophon admired how Sparta trained its citizens from youth in discipline, loyalty, and martial excellence.
Philosophical and Practical Writings
Other works such asMemorabilia,Oeconomicus, andCyropaediaalso reflect a strong appreciation for orderly governance and ethical leadership values aligned with the Spartan ethos. His admiration was not blind, however. He could recognize Spartan flaws, but his overall tone remains respectful and even reverent toward their institutions.
Return to Athenian Favor
Shifting Political Winds
Later in life, as the political landscape of Greece changed and Spartan power waned, Xenophon’s relationship with his homeland began to thaw. The exact date is unclear, but evidence suggests that his exile was lifted, allowing him to visit or even return to Athens toward the end of his life. However, he likely never fully resettled there, having built a long life and home outside of the city.
Death and Legacy
Xenophon died around 354 BCE, leaving behind a rich legacy of historical and philosophical literature. His unique position as an Athenian who had lived under Spartan influence gives modern readers a rare perspective on both cultures. His works remain valuable not only for their content but also for their balanced and often personal insights into Greek life during a time of war and upheaval.
So, did Xenophon live in Sparta? Not in the city itself, but his life was deeply entangled with the Spartan world. Through his exile, his military service under Spartan leadership, and his long residence in Scillus land under Spartan control Xenophon embraced a lifestyle and set of values closely aligned with those of Sparta. His admiration is evident in both his actions and his writings. By living among Spartans and immersing himself in their culture, Xenophon offered a unique window into one of the most powerful and enigmatic civilizations of ancient Greece. His life stands as a testament to cultural exchange, political transformation, and the lasting influence of philosophical ideals.