The question of whether Byzantium is the Roman Empire has intrigued historians, scholars, and the general public for centuries. The confusion often arises due to the changes in language, geography, and political structure that occurred over time. Despite the shifts that took place, the Byzantine Empire was indeed a continuation of the Roman Empire in many ways. The story of Byzantium is not about the fall of Rome, but rather about its transformation and survival in the East. Understanding this evolution requires a deeper look into the roots of the Roman Empire, the rise of Byzantium, and how identity and legacy were preserved under different forms.
Origins of the Byzantine Empire
From Rome to Constantinople
When Emperor Constantine the Great established Constantinople in 330 CE as the new capital of the Roman Empire, he laid the foundation for what would later be known as the Byzantine Empire. The city was built on the site of the ancient city of Byzantium, strategically located on the Bosporus strait. This move was not a rejection of Roman traditions but a strategic and symbolic shift of power toward the East.
As the Western Roman Empire began to decline under the pressure of internal decay and external invasions, the Eastern Roman Empire, with Constantinople at its heart, remained resilient. By the time the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, the Eastern portion had already developed its own distinct identity while still claiming to be Roman.
Political and Cultural Continuity
The emperors of the Byzantine Empire considered themselves Roman emperors. They used the Roman title ‘Augustus,’ maintained Roman laws, and preserved many administrative institutions inherited from earlier Roman governance. The Byzantine Senate, though reduced in power, continued to function for centuries. The legal codes compiled under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century were explicitly based on Roman law, and this codification, known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, became a foundational legal reference in later European history.
Language and Religion
From Latin to Greek
One of the major changes that causes people to question the Roman identity of Byzantium is the shift in language. While Latin remained the official administrative language for the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, Greek gradually became the dominant tongue. By the 7th century, Greek had largely replaced Latin in government, education, and everyday life.
However, language does not solely define the essence of a state. The change to Greek reflected the reality of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, where Greek had long been spoken by the majority. Adapting to local culture helped strengthen the empire and allowed it to survive far longer than its western counterpart.
Christianity as a Unifying Force
Religion played a crucial role in defining Byzantine identity. While Christianity had spread during the latter years of the unified Roman Empire, it became central to Byzantine life. The Byzantine emperors considered themselves God’s representatives on Earth and took an active role in church affairs. The integration of church and state, known as caesaropapism, was a hallmark of Byzantine governance.
The religious doctrines, liturgies, and theological debates that occurred in Byzantium greatly shaped the development of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. The Byzantine Church maintained traditions with Roman roots while developing uniquely Greek features.
Military and Diplomatic Identity
Roman Armies, Byzantine Strategy
The Byzantine military continued many Roman traditions, although it also evolved to face new challenges. Byzantine generals used strategies inspired by Roman manuals but adapted them to fit the shifting threats from Persians, Arabs, and later Turks. The Byzantine army included heavy infantry, cavalry units like the cataphracts, and a complex system of fortifications that reflected Roman military discipline combined with Eastern ingenuity.
Diplomacy was another field in which the Byzantines excelled. They used intelligence, treaties, marriage alliances, and bribery to avoid unnecessary wars. These practices were refined versions of Roman diplomatic customs and contributed to the longevity of the Byzantine state.
Differences That Caused Confusion
Eastern vs Western Identity
One of the reasons modern observers struggle with the idea of Byzantium being Roman is the cultural and religious split between East and West. The rise of the Papacy in the West and the authority of the Patriarch in Constantinople eventually led to the Great Schism in 1054, dividing Christianity into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. This division further distanced Byzantium from its western roots in the eyes of later Europeans.
Furthermore, the Renaissance in Western Europe brought a revival of interest in ancient Rome. Humanists looked back to the Roman Republic and early Empire as their ideal, often disregarding the Byzantine continuation of Roman traditions as corrupt or decadent. This perception shaped the way history was written for centuries.
The Term Byzantine
The name ‘Byzantine Empire’ was never used by the people who lived there. They called themselves Romans, or ‘Rhomaioi’ in Greek. The term Byzantine was coined by historians much later to distinguish this Eastern Christian state from the earlier, Latin-speaking Roman Empire centered in the West. Unfortunately, this artificial distinction has led many to see Byzantium as something other than Roman, even though it was a direct continuation of the Roman state.
Legacy of the Byzantine Empire
Preservers of Roman Civilization
The Byzantine Empire preserved and transmitted much of classical Roman and Greek knowledge through its scholars, monasteries, and libraries. When Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, many scholars fled to Western Europe, bringing with them ancient texts and learning that would help ignite the Renaissance.
In this way, Byzantium acted as a bridge between the ancient and modern worlds. It maintained the heritage of Rome in a transformed context, ensuring that the legacy of Roman law, governance, and philosophy would not be lost.
Influence on Eastern Europe
The cultural and religious influence of Byzantium extended far beyond its borders. It played a crucial role in the Christianization of the Slavic peoples, especially in Russia, Serbia, and Bulgaria. The Cyrillic alphabet, created by missionaries from Byzantium, and the spread of Orthodox Christianity are lasting impacts of Byzantine diplomacy and faith.
In fact, the rulers of Russia would later refer to Moscow as the ‘Third Rome,’ viewing their state as the spiritual and political heir to Byzantium after its fall. This demonstrates how deeply the Byzantine identity was linked to the idea of being Roman, even centuries later.
So, is Byzantium the Roman Empire? The answer is yes, though with qualifications. Byzantium was a continuation of the Roman Empire in terms of legal tradition, imperial authority, religion, and culture. It evolved over time to meet new challenges and reflect the realities of its Eastern environment, but it never abandoned its Roman roots. Modern distinctions between Roman and Byzantine often obscure the historical continuity that was clear to those who lived it. Understanding Byzantium as the Eastern Roman Empire helps us see the broader and richer legacy of Rome, which endured not only through emperors and armies, but also through faith, law, and knowledge preserved across a thousand years.